Comparing Anemia Prevalence in Rural vs. Urban Pregnant Populations: A Review
Keywords:
Anemia Prevalence, Maternal Health, Nutritional Interventions, Pregnant Populations, Rural and Urban Comparison
Abstract
Anemia in pregnancy is a critical public health issue that affects maternal and fetal outcomes, with varying prevalence across rural and urban populations. Rural areas often report higher anemia rates due to limited healthcare access, poverty, and dietary deficiencies. Urban areas, despite better healthcare infrastructure, are not immune to anemia, particularly among underserved communities where dietary habits, stress, and socio-economic challenges contribute significantly. This review explores the prevalence of anemia in rural versus urban pregnant populations, examining the socioeconomic, dietary, and healthcare-related factors contributing to these disparities. Rural areas face challenges such as inadequate antenatal care and cultural practices discouraging the consumption of iron-rich foods. In contrast, urban settings, particularly among low-income groups, deal with issues such as dietary transitions, unequal healthcare access, and overburdened health systems. These disparities call for context-specific interventions to combat anemia effectively.
References
1. Owais A, Merritt C, Lee C, Bhutta ZA. Anemia among women of reproductive age: an overview of global burden, trends, determinants, and drivers of progress in low-and middle-income countries. Nutrients. 2021; 13(8):2745. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082745
2. World Health Organization. Worldwide prevalence of anaemia 1993-2005: WHO global database on anaemia. 2008. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241596657
3. Agreen FC, Obeagu EI. Anaemia among pregnant women: A review of African pregnant teenagers. Journal of Public Health and Nutrition. 2023;6(1):138. doi: https://doi.org/10.35841/aajphn-6.1.138
4. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Chukwueze CM, Ikpenwa JN, Ramos GF. Evaluation of protein C, protein S and fibrinogen of pregnant women with malaria in Owerri metropolis. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2022; 2(2):1-9. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/58
5. Means, R. T. (2020). Iron Deficiency and Iron Deficiency Anemia: Implications and Impact in Pregnancy, Fetal Development, and Early Childhood Parameters. Nutrients, 12(2), 447. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020447
6. Obeagu EI, Adepoju OJ, Okafor CJ, Obeagu GU, Ibekwe AM, Okpala PU, Agu CC. Assessment of Haematological Changes in Pregnant Women of Ido, Ondo State, Nigeria. J Res Med Dent Sci. 2021 Apr;9(4):145-8. https://www.jrmds.in/articles/assessment-of-haematological-changes-in-pregnant-women-of-ido-ondo-state-nigeria.pdf
7. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Neonatal Outcomes in Children Born to Mothers with Severe Malaria, HIV, and Transfusion History: A Review. Elite Journal of Nursing and Health Science, 2024; 2(3): 38-58
8. Sapehia D, Mahajan A, Srinivasan R, Kaur J. Pre-natal dietary imbalance of folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency adversely impacts placental development and fetal growth. Placenta. 2023; 132:44-54. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2023.01.003
9. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Sickle cell anaemia in pregnancy: a review. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences. 2023 Jun 10;6(2):10-3. https://irmhs.com/index.php/irmhs/article/view/111
10. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Hemolysis Challenges for Pregnant Women with Sickle Cell Anemia: A Review. Elite Journal of Haematology. 2024;2(3):67-80.
11. Obeagu EI, Ezimah AC, Obeagu GU. Erythropoietin in the anaemias of pregnancy: a review. Int J Curr Res Chem Pharm Sci. 2016;3(3):10-8. https://ijcrcps.com/pdfcopy/mar2016/ijcrcps2.pdf
12. Muñoz M, Peña-Rosas JP, Robinson S, Milman N, Holzgreve W, Breymann C, Goffinet F, Nizard J, Christory F, Samama CM, Hardy JF. Patient blood management in obstetrics: management of anaemia and haematinic deficiencies in pregnancy and in the post-partum period: NATA consensus statement. Transfusion medicine. 2018; 28(1):22-39. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/tme.12443
13. Breymann C. Iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy. InSeminars in hematology 2015; 52(4):339-347. WB Saunders. doi: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.seminhematol.2015.07.003
14. Green R, Mitra AD. Megaloblastic anemias: nutritional and other causes. Medical Clinics. 2017; 101(2):297-317. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2016.09.013
15. Rashid S, Meier V, Patrick H. Review of Vitamin B12 deficiency in pregnancy: a diagnosis not to miss as veganism and vegetarianism become more prevalent. European journal of haematology. 2021; 106(4):450-455. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ejh.13571
16. Jagnade RS, Bharat R, Singh P. Association between Systemically Healthy Chronic Periodontitis Pregnant Female Subjects and Anemia of Chronic Diseases: A Clinical Study. Journal of Advanced Medical and Dental Sciences Research. 2018;6(9):88-95. https://journals.indexcopernicus.com/api/file/viewByFileId/593509
17. Barrera‐Reyes PK, Tejero ME. Genetic variation influencing hemoglobin levels and risk for anemia across populations. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2019; 1450(1):32-46. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14200
18. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Ali M, Willan A, McIlroy W, Patterson C. Laboratory diagnosis of iron-deficiency anemia: an overview. Journal of general internal medicine. 1992; 7:145-53. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02598003
19. Eweis M, Farid EZ, El-Malky N, Abdel-Rasheed M, Salem S, Shawky S. Prevalence and determinants of anemia during the third trimester of pregnancy. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN. 2021;44:194-199. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2021.06.023
20. Agbozo F, Abubakari A, Der J, Jahn A. Maternal dietary intakes, red blood cell indices and risk for anemia in the first, second and third trimesters of pregnancy and at predelivery. Nutrients. 2020; 12(3):777. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030777
21. Siteti MC, Namasaka SD, Ariya OP, Injete SD, Wanyonyi WA. Anaemia in pregnancy: Prevalence and possible risk factors in Kakamega County, Kenya. Science journal of public health. 2014;2(3):216-222. doi: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sjph.20140203.23
22. Kumar SB, Arnipalli SR, Mehta P, Carrau S, Ziouzenkova O. Iron deficiency anemia: efficacy and limitations of nutritional and comprehensive mitigation strategies. Nutrients. 2022; 14(14):2976. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142976
23. Pai RD, Chong YS, Clemente-Chua LR, Irwinda R, Huynh TN, Wibowo N, Gamilla MC, Mahdy ZA. Prevention and management of iron deficiency/iron-deficiency anemia in women: an Asian expert consensus. Nutrients. 2023; 15(14):3125. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15143125
24. Muñoz M, Peña-Rosas JP, Robinson S, Milman N, Holzgreve W, Breymann C, Goffinet F, Nizard J, Christory F, Samama CM, Hardy JF. Patient blood management in obstetrics: management of anaemia and haematinic deficiencies in pregnancy and in the post-partum period: NATA consensus statement. Transfusion medicine. 2018;28(1):22-39. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/tme.12443
25. Shi H, Chen L, Wang Y, Sun M, Guo Y, Ma S, Wang X, Jiang H, Wang X, Lu J, Ge L. Severity of anemia during pregnancy and adverse maternal and fetal outcomes. JAMA network open. 2022;5(2):e2147046. doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.47046
26. World Health Organization. Guideline: daily iron and folic acid supplementation in pregnant women. World Health Organization; 2012. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241501996
27. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Sickle cell anaemia in pregnancy: a review. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences. 2023 Jun 10;6(2):10-3. https://irmhs.com/index.php/irmhs/article/view/111
28. Obeagu EI, Ubosi NI, Uzoma G. Antioxidant Supplementation in Pregnancy: Effects on Maternal and Infant Health. Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip. Res. 2023;10(11):60-70. https://ijarm.com/pdfcopy/2023/nov2023/ijarm5.pdf
29. Obeagu EI, Ubosi NI, Uzoma G. Antioxidant Supplementation in Pregnancy: Effects on Maternal and Infant Health. Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip. Res. 2023;10(11):60-70. https://ijarm.com/pdfcopy/2023/nov2023/ijarm5.pdf
30. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Enhancing Maternal and Fetal Well-being: The Role of Antioxidants in Pregnancy. Elite Journal of Medical Sciences. 2024;2(4):76-87.
31. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Antioxidant Supplementation and Prevention of Early Pregnancy Loss: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2024;11(9):28-37.
32. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Molar Pregnancy: Update of prevalence and risk factors. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2023;9(7):25-8. https://ijcrims.com/pdfcopy/2023/july2023/ijcrims5.pdf
33. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Hypoxia-induced Metabolic Changes in Pregnancy: Clinical Perspectives. Elite Journal of Medicine. 2024;2(8):50-9.
34. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Hemolysis Challenges for Pregnant Women with Sickle Cell Anemia: A Review. Elite Journal of Haematology. 2024;2(3):67-80.
35. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Ezeonwumelu JO. Safety and Efficacy of Blood Transfusions in Pregnant Women. Elite Journal of Haematology, 2024; 2 (3).:96-106.
36. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Hypoxia in Pregnancy: Implications for Fetal Development. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2024;11(7):39-50.
2. World Health Organization. Worldwide prevalence of anaemia 1993-2005: WHO global database on anaemia. 2008. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241596657
3. Agreen FC, Obeagu EI. Anaemia among pregnant women: A review of African pregnant teenagers. Journal of Public Health and Nutrition. 2023;6(1):138. doi: https://doi.org/10.35841/aajphn-6.1.138
4. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Chukwueze CM, Ikpenwa JN, Ramos GF. Evaluation of protein C, protein S and fibrinogen of pregnant women with malaria in Owerri metropolis. Madonna University journal of Medicine and Health Sciences. 2022; 2(2):1-9. https://madonnauniversity.edu.ng/journals/index.php/medicine/article/view/58
5. Means, R. T. (2020). Iron Deficiency and Iron Deficiency Anemia: Implications and Impact in Pregnancy, Fetal Development, and Early Childhood Parameters. Nutrients, 12(2), 447. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020447
6. Obeagu EI, Adepoju OJ, Okafor CJ, Obeagu GU, Ibekwe AM, Okpala PU, Agu CC. Assessment of Haematological Changes in Pregnant Women of Ido, Ondo State, Nigeria. J Res Med Dent Sci. 2021 Apr;9(4):145-8. https://www.jrmds.in/articles/assessment-of-haematological-changes-in-pregnant-women-of-ido-ondo-state-nigeria.pdf
7. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Neonatal Outcomes in Children Born to Mothers with Severe Malaria, HIV, and Transfusion History: A Review. Elite Journal of Nursing and Health Science, 2024; 2(3): 38-58
8. Sapehia D, Mahajan A, Srinivasan R, Kaur J. Pre-natal dietary imbalance of folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency adversely impacts placental development and fetal growth. Placenta. 2023; 132:44-54. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2023.01.003
9. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Sickle cell anaemia in pregnancy: a review. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences. 2023 Jun 10;6(2):10-3. https://irmhs.com/index.php/irmhs/article/view/111
10. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Hemolysis Challenges for Pregnant Women with Sickle Cell Anemia: A Review. Elite Journal of Haematology. 2024;2(3):67-80.
11. Obeagu EI, Ezimah AC, Obeagu GU. Erythropoietin in the anaemias of pregnancy: a review. Int J Curr Res Chem Pharm Sci. 2016;3(3):10-8. https://ijcrcps.com/pdfcopy/mar2016/ijcrcps2.pdf
12. Muñoz M, Peña-Rosas JP, Robinson S, Milman N, Holzgreve W, Breymann C, Goffinet F, Nizard J, Christory F, Samama CM, Hardy JF. Patient blood management in obstetrics: management of anaemia and haematinic deficiencies in pregnancy and in the post-partum period: NATA consensus statement. Transfusion medicine. 2018; 28(1):22-39. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/tme.12443
13. Breymann C. Iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy. InSeminars in hematology 2015; 52(4):339-347. WB Saunders. doi: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.seminhematol.2015.07.003
14. Green R, Mitra AD. Megaloblastic anemias: nutritional and other causes. Medical Clinics. 2017; 101(2):297-317. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2016.09.013
15. Rashid S, Meier V, Patrick H. Review of Vitamin B12 deficiency in pregnancy: a diagnosis not to miss as veganism and vegetarianism become more prevalent. European journal of haematology. 2021; 106(4):450-455. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ejh.13571
16. Jagnade RS, Bharat R, Singh P. Association between Systemically Healthy Chronic Periodontitis Pregnant Female Subjects and Anemia of Chronic Diseases: A Clinical Study. Journal of Advanced Medical and Dental Sciences Research. 2018;6(9):88-95. https://journals.indexcopernicus.com/api/file/viewByFileId/593509
17. Barrera‐Reyes PK, Tejero ME. Genetic variation influencing hemoglobin levels and risk for anemia across populations. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2019; 1450(1):32-46. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14200
18. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Ali M, Willan A, McIlroy W, Patterson C. Laboratory diagnosis of iron-deficiency anemia: an overview. Journal of general internal medicine. 1992; 7:145-53. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02598003
19. Eweis M, Farid EZ, El-Malky N, Abdel-Rasheed M, Salem S, Shawky S. Prevalence and determinants of anemia during the third trimester of pregnancy. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN. 2021;44:194-199. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2021.06.023
20. Agbozo F, Abubakari A, Der J, Jahn A. Maternal dietary intakes, red blood cell indices and risk for anemia in the first, second and third trimesters of pregnancy and at predelivery. Nutrients. 2020; 12(3):777. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030777
21. Siteti MC, Namasaka SD, Ariya OP, Injete SD, Wanyonyi WA. Anaemia in pregnancy: Prevalence and possible risk factors in Kakamega County, Kenya. Science journal of public health. 2014;2(3):216-222. doi: https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sjph.20140203.23
22. Kumar SB, Arnipalli SR, Mehta P, Carrau S, Ziouzenkova O. Iron deficiency anemia: efficacy and limitations of nutritional and comprehensive mitigation strategies. Nutrients. 2022; 14(14):2976. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142976
23. Pai RD, Chong YS, Clemente-Chua LR, Irwinda R, Huynh TN, Wibowo N, Gamilla MC, Mahdy ZA. Prevention and management of iron deficiency/iron-deficiency anemia in women: an Asian expert consensus. Nutrients. 2023; 15(14):3125. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15143125
24. Muñoz M, Peña-Rosas JP, Robinson S, Milman N, Holzgreve W, Breymann C, Goffinet F, Nizard J, Christory F, Samama CM, Hardy JF. Patient blood management in obstetrics: management of anaemia and haematinic deficiencies in pregnancy and in the post-partum period: NATA consensus statement. Transfusion medicine. 2018;28(1):22-39. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/tme.12443
25. Shi H, Chen L, Wang Y, Sun M, Guo Y, Ma S, Wang X, Jiang H, Wang X, Lu J, Ge L. Severity of anemia during pregnancy and adverse maternal and fetal outcomes. JAMA network open. 2022;5(2):e2147046. doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.47046
26. World Health Organization. Guideline: daily iron and folic acid supplementation in pregnant women. World Health Organization; 2012. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241501996
27. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Sickle cell anaemia in pregnancy: a review. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences. 2023 Jun 10;6(2):10-3. https://irmhs.com/index.php/irmhs/article/view/111
28. Obeagu EI, Ubosi NI, Uzoma G. Antioxidant Supplementation in Pregnancy: Effects on Maternal and Infant Health. Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip. Res. 2023;10(11):60-70. https://ijarm.com/pdfcopy/2023/nov2023/ijarm5.pdf
29. Obeagu EI, Ubosi NI, Uzoma G. Antioxidant Supplementation in Pregnancy: Effects on Maternal and Infant Health. Int. J. Adv. Multidiscip. Res. 2023;10(11):60-70. https://ijarm.com/pdfcopy/2023/nov2023/ijarm5.pdf
30. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Enhancing Maternal and Fetal Well-being: The Role of Antioxidants in Pregnancy. Elite Journal of Medical Sciences. 2024;2(4):76-87.
31. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Antioxidant Supplementation and Prevention of Early Pregnancy Loss: A Narrative Review. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2024;11(9):28-37.
32. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Molar Pregnancy: Update of prevalence and risk factors. Int. J. Curr. Res. Med. Sci. 2023;9(7):25-8. https://ijcrims.com/pdfcopy/2023/july2023/ijcrims5.pdf
33. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Hypoxia-induced Metabolic Changes in Pregnancy: Clinical Perspectives. Elite Journal of Medicine. 2024;2(8):50-9.
34. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Hemolysis Challenges for Pregnant Women with Sickle Cell Anemia: A Review. Elite Journal of Haematology. 2024;2(3):67-80.
35. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU, Ezeonwumelu JO. Safety and Efficacy of Blood Transfusions in Pregnant Women. Elite Journal of Haematology, 2024; 2 (3).:96-106.
36. Obeagu EI, Obeagu GU. Hypoxia in Pregnancy: Implications for Fetal Development. Int. J. Curr. Res. Chem. Pharm. Sci. 2024;11(7):39-50.
Published
2025-02-08
How to Cite
Ifeanyi Obeagu, E. (2025). Comparing Anemia Prevalence in Rural vs. Urban Pregnant Populations: A Review. International Research in Medical and Health Sciences, 7(6), 31-38. Retrieved from https://www.irmhs.com/index.php/irmhs/article/view/172
Section
Review Article
